[/
    Boost.Optional

    Copyright (c) 2003-2007 Fernando Luis Cacciola Carballal
    Copyright (c) 2014 Andrzej Krzemienski

    Distributed under the Boost Software License, Version 1.0.
    (See accompanying file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at
    http://www.boost.org/LICENSE_1_0.txt)
]


[section Quick Overview]

[section Optional return values]

Let's write and use a converter function that converts a `std::string` to an `int`.
It is possible that for a given string (e.g. `"cat"`) there exists no value of type
`int` capable of representing the conversion result. We do not consider such
situation an error. We expect that the converter can be used only to check if
the conversion is possible. A natural signature for this function can be:

    #include <boost/optional.hpp>
    boost::optional<int> convert(const std::string& text);

All necessary functionality can be included with one header `<boost/optional.hpp>`.
The above function signature means that the function can either return a value
of type `int` or a flag indicating that no value of `int` is available.
This does not indicate an error. It is like one additional value of `int`.
This is how we can use our function:

    const std::string& text = /*... */;
    boost::optional<int> oi = convert(text); // move-construct
    if (oi)                                  // contextual conversion to bool
      int i = *oi;                           // operator*

In order to test if `optional` contains a value, we use the contextual conversion to type `bool`. Because of this we can combine the initialization of the optional object and the test into one instruction:

    if (boost::optional<int> oi = convert(text))
      int i = *oi;

We extract the contained value with `operator*` (and with `operator->` where it makes sense). An attempt to extract the contained value of an uninitialized optional object is an ['undefined behaviour] (UB). This implementation guards the call with `BOOST_ASSERT`. Therefore you should be sure that the contained value is there before extracting. For instance, the following code is reasonably UB-safe:

    int i = *convert("100");

This is because we know that string value `"100"` converts to a valid value of `int`. If you do not like this potential UB, you can use an alternative way of extracting the contained value:

    try {
      int j = convert(text).value();
    }
    catch (const boost::bad_optional_access&) {
      // deal with it
    }

This version throws an exception upon an attempt to access a nonexistent contained value. If your way of dealing with the missing value is to use some default, like `0`, there exists a yet another alternative:

    int k = convert(text).value_or(0);

This uses the `atoi`-like approach to conversions: if `text` does not represent an integral number just return `0`. Finally, you can provide a callback to be called when trying to access the contained value fails:

    int fallback_to_default()
    {
      cerr << "could not convert; using -1 instead" << endl;
      return -1;
    }

    int l = convert(text).value_or_eval(fallback_to_default);

This will call the provided callback and return whatever the callback returns. The callback can have side effects: they will only be observed when the optional object does not contain a value.

Now, let's consider how function `convert` can be implemented.

    boost::optional<int> convert(const std::string& text)
    {
      std::stringstream s(text);
      int i;
      if ((s >> i) && s.get() == std::char_traits<char>::eof())
        return i;
      else
        return boost::none;
    }

Observe the two return statements. `return i` uses the converting constructor that can create `optional<T>` from `T`. Thus constructed optional object is initialized and its value is a copy of `i`. The other return statement uses another converting constructor from a special tag `boost::none`. It is used to indicate that we want to create an uninitialized optional object.

[endsect]

[section Optional automatic variables]

We could write function `convert` in a slightly different manner, so that it has a single `return`-statement:

    boost::optional<int> convert(const std::string& text)
    {
      boost::optional<int> ans;
      std::stringstream s(text);
      int i;
      if ((s >> i) && s.get() == std::char_traits<char>::eof())
        ans = i;

      return ans;
    }

The default constructor of `optional` creates an uninitialized optional object. Unlike with `int`s you cannot have an `optional<int>` in an indeterminate state. Its state is always well defined. Instruction `ans = i` initializes the optional object. It uses the 'mixed' assignment from `int`. In general, for `optional<T>`, when an assignment from `T` is invoked, it can do two things. If the optional object is not initialized (our case here), it initializes the contained value using `T`'s copy constructor. If the optional object is already initialized, it assigns the new value to it using `T`'s copy assignment.
[endsect]

[section Optional data members]

Suppose we want to implement a ['lazy load] optimization. This is because we do not want to perform an expensive initialization of our `Resource` until (if at all) it is really used. We can do it this way:

    class Widget
    {
      mutable boost::optional<const Resource> resource_;

    public:
      Widget() {}

      const Resource& getResource() const // not thread-safe
      {
        if (resource_ == boost::none)
            resource_.emplace("resource", "arguments");

        return *resource_;
      }
    };

`optional`'s default constructor creates an uninitialized optional. No call to `Resource`'s default constructor is attempted. `Resource` doesn't have to be __STD_DEFAULT_CONSTRUCTIBLE__. In function `getResource` we first check if `resource_` is initialized. This time we do not use the contextual conversion to `bool`, but a comparison with `boost::none`. These two ways are equivalent. Function `emplace` initializes the optional in-place by perfect-forwarding the arguments to the constructor of `Resource`. No copy- or move-construction is involved here. `Resource` doesn't even have to be `MoveConstructible`.


[endsect]

[section Storage in containers]

Suppose you want to ask users to choose some number (an `int`). One of the valid responses is to choose nothing, which is represented by an uninitialized `optional<int>`. You want to make a histogram showing how many times each choice was made. You can use an `std::map`:

    std::map<boost::optional<int>, int> choices;

    for (int i = 0; i < LIMIT; ++i) {
      boost::optional<int> choice = readChoice();
      ++choices[choice];
    }

This works because `optional<T>` is __STD_LESS_THAN_COMPARABLE__ whenever `T` is __STD_LESS_THAN_COMPARABLE__.
In this case the state of being uninitialized is treated as a yet another value of `T`,
which is compared less than any value of `T`.
`optional<T>` can also be stored as a key in `std::unordered_map` and `std::unordered_set`
as it provides specializations for `std::hash`.
[endsect]

[section Monadic interface]

The monadic interface of `optional` allows the application of functions
to optional values without resorting to the usage of explicit `if`-statements.

Function `map` takes a function mapping type `T` onto type `U` and maps an `optional<T>`
onto an `optional<U>` using the provided function.

    int length(const string& s){ return s.size(); };

    optional<string> null{}, thin{""}, word{"word"};
    assert (null.map(length) == none);
    assert (thin.map(length) == 0);
    assert (word.map(length) == 4);

Function `flat_map` is similar, but it requires the function to return an
`optional<V>` for some type `V`. This `optional<V>` becomes the return type of
`flat_map`.

    optional<char> first_char(const string& s) {
      if (s.empty()) return none;
      else           return s[0];
    };

    optional<string> null{}, thin{""}, word{"word"};
    assert (null.flat_map(first_char) == none);
    assert (thin.flat_map(first_char) == none);
    assert (word.flat_map(first_char) == 'w');

These functions can be combined in one expression reflecting a chain of computations:

    auto get_contents(path p) -> optional<string>;
    auto trim(string) -> string;
    auto length(string) -> int;

    auto trimmed_size_of(optional<path> p) -> int
    {
      return p.flat_map(get_contents)
              .map(trim)
              .map(length)
              .value_or(0);
    }


[endsect]

[endsect]
